in which cultural constraints can be overcome. Only by understanding the cultural context in which behaviors occur can outsiders understand the behaviors that will be considered proper or acceptable across nation-states and those that are likely to be very different in Cairo, London, and New York. In other words, we may find fragmentation of behaviors within cultures, but even these behaviors are imbued with cultural meaning. and idiosyncratic characteristicsof culture using a limited set of dimensions may lead to the impression that this limited set of adjectives can capture the essence of culture. However, experience and observation tells us that culture is more complex and paradoxical, with many exceptions and qualifications to any general classification. All cultures contain defining elements that defy universal qualifications. Examples include the Latino notion of orgullo, or pride for the accomplishments of their people; the Brazilian jeitinho, or flexible adaptability; and the Japanese kao, or face (kao o tateru for saving face). These unique aspects of culture are enmeshed in and derived from unique historical experiences and responses and are not fully captured by general categories and descriptions, which fail to acknowledge the intricacies of the meaning of the concepts.example, while most people would agree that US culture is largely individualistic, the general classification of individualism versus collectivism fails to capture important nuances underlying this defining characteristic that is often captured in the American vernacular by the term pioneering spirit. For example, consider George Washington s fabled boyhood response when questioned regarding his responsibility for the felling of a cherry tree, I cannot tell a lie. This response and the actions that preceded it highlight not only the value of truthfulness that American parents attempt to impart to their children, but also a strong pattern of individual choice and action characteristic of the culture. The parable does not indicate that one should consider other s feelings, ask before taking action, or apologize for past actions taken. Rather, it suggests, as does a well-known American axiom, that it is acceptable to act first, and ask questions later as long as one takes individual responsibility for one s actions. It is this individual initiative, decisiveness, risk-taking, and responsibility that are conveyed by the term pioneer spirit, not just individualism.one step further, the conception of individualism as active initiative and responsibility is much more nuanced than the conception portrayed by the general categories of individualism and collectivism, which also cannot explain apparent contradictions. For example, American pop and media culture is rife with admiring stories of those who sacrifice for others, such as a soldier who falls on a grenade to save his comrades. While such self-sacrificial action is at odds with a global value of the individual over the group, it is highly consistent with the pattern of individual initiative, decision making, action, and responsibility that is, again, incorporated into the American concept of pioneer spirit. Hence, intelligent managers will avoid simple solutions and look for the nuances underlying categorizations, not just the rhetoric.and predicative powersdiscussion of culture frequently leads to an exaggerated assumption of causality and determinism. It is easy to make connections between...
