l?) sc? adu (shad? w) miht (might) tid (tim?) m? gd? n (girl) scip (ship) ban (b? n?) b? dd (b? d) w? dd (pl? dg?) sp? r? (sp? ar)? -Sax? n v? rbs w? r? a bit? asi? r, as th? y had alr? ady? v? lv? d away fr? m? ld? r Ind? -? ur? p? an traditi? ns al? ng with th? ? th? r G? rmanic languag? s. Th? r? w? r? ? nly tw? t? ns? s, a pr? s? nt and a past. H? r? is th? w? rd f? r kiss:
pr? s? nt singularpr? s? nt pluralpast singularpast pluralic cyss? thu cyss? st h? cyss? thw? cyssathic cyst? thu cyst? st h? cyst? w? cyst? n
M? d? rn? nglish? nly r? ally has six grammatical affix? s l? ft: -s f? r plural n? uns, - s f? r g? nitiv? n? uns, -s f? r third p? rs? n singular v? rbs, -? d f? r th? past t? ns? , -? d th? past participl? , And -ing f? R th? pr? s? nt participl?. Unf? Rtunat? ly f? r l? arn? rs? f? nglish, it still has s? v? ral irr? gular v? rbs (? .g. t? b? and t? hav?) and a larg? numb? r? f str? ng v? rbs (? .g. sing-sang-sung), plus a f? w irr? gular plurals (? .g. child-childr? n, man-m? n ...). N? v? rth? l? ss, p? ? pl? ar? und th? w? rld find? nglish r? lativ? ly? asy, with? n? hug? ? xc? pti? n:? nglish has th? w? rst sp? lling? f any languag? using th? Latin alphab? t! Unlik? m? st? th? r? ur? p? an languag? s, w? hav? n? t had any maj? r updat? s in sp? lling sinc? Shak? sp? ar? s tim? , D? spit? dramatic s? und chang? s and innum? rabl? b? rr? wings fr? m? th? r languag? s.
11.1 S? m? Int? rpr? tati? ns? f th? Gr? at V? w? l Shift
Th? Gr? at V? w? l Shift has attract? d th? att? nti? n? f many linguists (K. Luick,?. J? sp? rs? n, F. M? ss?, A. Martin? t, B.Trnka, V. Pl? tkin and? th? rs).
Th? r? ar? c? rtainly many r? markabl? asp? cts in th? shift. As w? hav? s ?? n it l? ft n? l? ng v? w? l unalt? r? d. All th? v? w? ls w? r? chang? d in a singl? dir? cti? n. Th? chang? s f? rm? d a s? rt? f s? ri? s? r chain, as many v? w? ls t ?? k th? plac? ? f th? adj? ining cl? s? r v? w? ls. Th? distanc? s b? tw ?? n th? v? w? ls w? r? ? n th? wh? l? car? fully pr? s? rv? d, th? ? nly? xc? pti? n b? ing th? m? rging? f [?:]and [? :] Int? [i:] in th? 18th c? ntury. ? chang? s hav? b ?? n int? rpr? t? d as starting at? n? ? nd? f? ach s? t? f v? w? ls - fr? nt and back, - th? initial chang? stimulating th? m? v? m? nt? f th? ? th? r s? unds. If th? chang? s start? d at th? m? r? ? p? n v? w? ls, [a:] and [?:],? v? ry st? p; push? d th? adj? ining v? w? l away t? av? id c? incid? nc? , S? that finally th? cl? s? st v? w? ls, which c? uld n? t p? ssibly b? c? m? narr? w? r w? r? push? d ? ut? f th? s? t? f m? n? phth? ngs int? diphth? ngs: [i:] gt; [ai] and [u:] gt; [au]. This int? rpr? tati? n? f th? shift is kn? wn as th? push-chain (K- Luick). ? ? pp? sit? vi? w is h? ld by th? ? xp? n? nts? f th? th? ? ry? f drag-chain (?. J? Sp? Rs? N); acc? rding t? this th? ? ry th? chang? s start? d at th? tw? cl? s? st v? w? ls, [i:] and [u:]; th? s? cl? s? v? w? ls b? cam? diphth? ngs," dragging aft? r th? ms? lv? s th? ir n? ighb? urs, [?:] and [?:], which? ccupi? d th? vacant p? siti? ns;? v? ry v? w? l mad?? n? st? p in this dir? cti? n,? xc? pt [?:] which mad? tw?: [?:] b? cam? [?:] and th? n [i:]. springs t? th?? y? that all th? s? chang? sw? nt? n in c? nf? rmity with th? g? n? ral t? nd? ncy? fl? ng v? w? ls t? b? c? m? cl? s? r and t? diphth? ngis?, which was d? t? rmin? d by th? ir physical pr? p? rti? s:th? r? lativ? ly high pitch and t? nsi? n. This t? nd? ncy, as w? ll as th? n? c? ssity? f filling all? mpty b? x? s in th? v? w? l syst? m, may acc? unt f? r th? g? n? ral dir? cti? n? f th? shift and f? r th? unint? rrupt? d chain? f chang? s. H? w? v? r, it fails t?? xplain why at that particular p? ri? d hist? ry -? arly N? - th? chang? sb? cam? particularly int? nsiv?, and what was th? initial imp? tus that start? d th? pr? c? ss.s? m? r? c? ntly advanc? d th?? ri? s th? b? ginning? f th? Gr? at V? w? l Shift is ti? d up with s? m? pr? p? rti? s? f th? M? ph? n? l? gical syst? m. As was sh? Wn in th? pr? c? ding paragraphs th? ? arly M? r? distributi? n? f v? w? l quantity acc? rding t? p? siti? n r? strict? d th? us? ? f v? w? l quantity as a ph? n? l? gical distinctiv? f? atur? , Diff? r? ntiating b? tw ?? n m? rph? m? s and w? rds. It has b ?? n sugg? st that th? Gr? at V? w? l Shift was an aft? r? ff? ct? f th? s? r? stricti? ns: it intr? duc? d n? w qualitativ? diff? r? nc? s b? tw ?? n v? w? ls f? rm? rly distinguish? d thr? ugh l? ngth al? n?.th? sh? rt [?] and th? l? ng [?:],...
