tional - syntactic inseparability, contextual - stability of context combined with idiomaticity. (8, 280p.) The traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units is based on their original content and might be alluded to as thematic (although the term is not universally accepted). The approach is widely used in numerous English and American guides to idiom, phrase books, etc. On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin, source referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural phenomena, etc. So, LP Smith gives in his classification groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions of their occupations. In Smith's classification we also find groups of idioms associated with domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking. There are also numerous idioms drawn from sports, arts, etc. This principle of classification is sometimes called etymological raquo ;. The term does not seem appropriate since we usually mean something different when we speak of the etymology of a word or word-group: whether the word (or word-group) is native or borrowed, and, if the latter, what is the source of borrowing. It is true that Smith makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a relatively small part of his classification system. The general principle is not etymological.
Smith points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Most of them have long since developed metaphorical meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors. Here are some examples.
To be all at sea - to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (eg How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I m afraid I m all at sea in this problem). VH Collins remarks that the metaphor is that of a boat tossed about, out of control, with its occupants not knowing where they are.
To sink or swim - to fail or succeed (eg It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort.)
In deep water - in trouble or danger.
In low water, on the rocks - in strained financial circumstances.
To be in the same boat with somebody - to be in a situation in which people share the same difficulties and dangers (eg I don t like you much, but seeing that we re in the same boat I'll back you all I can). The metaphor is that of passengers in the life-boat of a sunken ship.
To sail under false colours - to pretend to be what one is not; sometimes, to pose as a friend and, at the same time, have hostile intentions. The metaphor is that of an enemy ship that approaches its intended prey showing at the mast the flag ( colours ) of a pretended friendly nation.
To show one s colours - to betray one s real character or intentions. The allusion is, once more, to a ship showing the flag of its country at the mast.
To strike one s colours - to surrender, give in, admit one is beaten. The metaphor refers to a ship s hauling down its flag (sign of surrender).
To weather (to ride out) the storm - to overcome difficulties; to have courageously stood against misfortunes.
To bow to the storm - to give in, to acknowledge one's defeat.
Three sheets in (to) the wind (sl.) - very drunk.
Half seas over (sl.) - drunk.
It is true, though, that a foreigner is more apt to be struck by the colourfulness of the direct meaning of an idiom where a native speaker sees only it s transferred meaning, the original associations being almost fully forgotten.
The thematic principle of classifying phraseological units has real merit but it does not take into consideration the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units (1, 243-245p.).
The classification system of phraseological units devised by a prominent scholar acad. VVVinogradov is considered by some linguists of today to be outdated, and yet its value is beyond doubt because it was the first classification system which was based on the semantic principle (8, 278p.).
In this classification he developed some points first advanced by Swiss scientist Charles Bally. He described phraseological units as lexical complexes which can not be freely made up in speech, bu...
