th L? w and High, including Yiddish (262). M? R? far-flung influ? nc? s w? r? fr? m th? languag? s? f Asia, Australasia, Africa,? ast? rn? ur? p? , Asia Min? R, and th? Am? ricas. ? ? arly in th? ir hist? ry, th? Am? rican c? l? ni? s b? gan t? influ? nc? th? g? n? ral v? cabulary with l? anw? rds fr? m th? languag? s? f b? th Am? rindians and? th? r? ur? p? an s? ttl? rs in th? N? w W? rld. Am? rican c? l? nists als? chang? d th? us? ? f nativ? ? nglish w? rds and? xp? rt? d th? s? chang? s, s? m? tim? s und? r pr? t? st, back t? Britain. Th? first d? cum? nt? d us? ? f th? w? rd l? ngthy in th? ? xf? rd? nglish? nary is by J? hn Adams in his diary f? r January 3, 1759: I gr? wt ?? minut? and l? ngthy. ? arly British r? acti? ns t? this p? rc? iv? d Am? ricanism ar? typifi? d by a 1793 c? ns? ri? us judgm? nt in th? British Critic: W? shall, at all tim? s, with pl? asur? , R? c? iv? fr? m? ur transatlantic br? thr? n r? al impr? v? m? nts? f? ur c? mm? n m? th? r-t? ngu?:But w? shall hardly b? induc? d t? admit such phras? s as... m? r? l? ngthy, f? r l? ng? r,? r m? r? diffus?. ? vati? n? f Pr? nunciati? n and C? ns? rvati? n? f Sp? lling Th? fift ?? nth c? ntury, f? ll? wing th? d? ath? f Chauc? r, mark? d a turning p? int in th? int? rnal hist? ry? f? nglish,? sp? cially its pr? nunciati? n and sp? lling, f? r during this p? ri? d th? languag? und? rw? nt gr? at? r, m? r? imp? rtant ph? n? l? gical chang? s than in any? th? r c? ntury b? f? r? ? r sinc?. D? spit? th? s? radical chang? s in pr? nunciati? n, th? ? ld sp? lling was g? n? rally k? pt. William Caxt? N, wh? di? d in 1491, and th? print? rs wh? f? ll? w? d him bas? d th? ir sp? llings, n? t? n th? pr? nunciati? n curr? nt in th? ir day, but inst? ad? n lat? m? di? val manuscripts. ? nc? , Alth? Ugh th? quality? f all th? Middl? ? nglish l? ng v? w? ls had chang? d, th? ir sp? lling c? ntinu? d as it had b ?? n at? arli? r tim? s. F? R instanc? , Th? Middl? ? nglish [? :]? F f ?? t, s ?? , Thr ?? ,? tc. had b ?? n rais? d t? [i:], but all such w? rds w? nt? n b? ing writt? n as if n? chang? had tak? n plac?. C? Ns? qu? ntly, th? ph? n? l? gical valu? ? f many l? tt? rs? f th? ? nglish alphab? t chang? d drastically. ? rs and m? n? f l? arning-misguid? d th? ugh th? y fr? qu? ntly w? r?- Gr? atly influ? nc? d? nglish sp? lling. L? arn? d m? n pr? f? rr? d archaic sp? llings, and th? y cr? at? d s? m? by r? sp? lling w? rds? tym? l? gically. Print? rs als? h? lp? d by n? rmalizing? ld? r scribal practic? s. Alth? Ugh? arly print? d w? rks? xhibit a g ?? d many inc? nsist? nci? s, still th? y ar? quit? ? rd? rly c? mpar? d with th? ? v? ryday manuscript writing? f th? tim?.modern English consonants. ? c? ns? nants? f? nglish, lik? th? sh? rt v? w? ls, hav? b ?? n rath? r stabl? , Th? Ugh c? rtain l? ss? s hav? ? ccurr? d within th? M? D? rn? nglish p? ri? d. ? ? ld? nglish and Middl? ? nglish v? ic? l? ss palatal fricativ? [c],? ccurring n? xt t? fr? nt v? w? ls and still r? pr? s? nt? d in? ur sp? lling by gh, disapp? ar? d? ntir? ly, as in bright, sigh, and w? igh. Th? id? ntically writt? n v? ic? l? ss v? lar fricativ? [x],? ccurring n? xt t? back v? w? ls,? ith? r disapp? ar? d, as in taught, b? ught, and b? ugh,? r b? cam? [f], as in c? ugh, laugh, and? n? ugh. Th? s? chang? s? ccurr? d as? arly as th? fift ?? nth c? ntury in? ngland s? uth? f th? Humb? r, th? ugh th? r? is? vid? nc? that still in th? lat? r part? f th? sixt ?? nth c? ntury? ld-fashi? n? d sp? ak? rs and a f? w p? dants r? tain? d th? s? unds? r at l? ast th? ught that th? y? ught t? b? r? tain? d (K? k? ritz, Shak? sp? ar? s Pr? nunciati? n 306) .th? final s? qu? nc?-mb, th? b had disapp? ar? d in pr? nunciati? n b? f? r? th? b? ginning? f th? M? D? rn? nglish p? ri? d, s? th? l? tt? r b c? uld b? add? d aft? r final m wh? r? it did n? t? tym? l? gically b? l? ng, in limb. Th? r? was a similar t? nd? ncy t? r? duc? final -nd, as in lawn, fr? m Middl? ? nglish laund; c? nfusi? n s ?? ms t? hav? aris? n, h? w? v? r, b? caus? a n? n? tym? l? gical -d has b ?? n add? d in s? und and l? nd (M? s? un and l? n?), th? ugh in th? latt? r w? rd th? ? xcr? sc? nt d? ccurr? d l? ng b? f? r? th? M? D? rn? nglish p? ri? d [48, 303c.]. ? l? f th? Middl? ? nglish pr? c? ns? nantal al was l? st aft? r first b? c? ming a v? w? l: thus Middl? ? nglish al and au f? ll t? g? th? r as au, ultimat? ly b? c? ming [?] (as in talk, walk)? r [.] b? f? r? f and v (as in half, salv?)? r [?] b? f? r? m (as in calm, palm). Th? l r? tain? d in th? sp? lling? f th? s? w? rd...
